Smoking in the UK - economic analysis of its costs Essay Example for Free

Smoking in the UK economic analysis of its costs Essay United Kingdom was the original state of smoking prevalence and smoking has caused widespread death of the first countries. According to ASH1 (2011) there are about 10 million adults who smoke cigarettes in Great Britain which is about a sixth of the total UK population. Throughout the United Kingdom, there was about one-third per cent of all the middle ages deaths caused by smoking. Therefore, United Kingdom is one of the most importance states of tobacco control. Government control on cigarette consumption through different instruments such as advertising-all advertising and promotion of tobacco are banned in the UK; taxation-taxation is probably the most effective means of reducing tobacco consumption. Raising tobacco prices through taxation can result in significant benefits to the economy. For instance, a 5% price increase would result in 190,000 fewer smokers and increase government revenue by à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½520 million per year in the first five years. As can be seen in figure 1, the numbers show that between 1991 and 2001 the retail price of cigarettes increased by about 80% in real terms. This is explained to a large extent by tax increases; over the same period the proportion of tax in the retail price rose from 73% to 80%. 1.2 Definition 1.2.1 External benefit External benefit is the benefit to the third party who is not involved into the activity which causes the cost (Anderton, 2008:96) 1.2.2 External cost External cost is the cost to the third party who is not involved into the activity which causes the cost (Anderton, 2008:96) 1.3 Theory This topic exist the relationship between demand and price which is if price increases, the quantity demanded becomes lower. Furthermore, taxation is a factor of the increase and decrease of demand and supply. Besides, advertising also is an important factor to influence the demand of cigarette. 1.4 Aims This article will tell you the positive and negative externalities of cigarette smoking. Moreover, it offers how effective the government had been done for reducing consumption of cigarette and also the other opinions of government instruments which can control the consumption of tobacco are included. 2. Finding 2.1 External benefit of smoking Nowadays, there is a great deal of data show that cigarette is not good for our human. However, smoking cigarette still has its advantage. According to an article published in 1995 in Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews, the smoking rates of schizophrenics have much higher than people with other mental illnesses. Therefore, smoking cigarette can alleviate symptoms of mental illnesses such as anxiety and schizophrenia. 2.2 External cost of smoking 2.21 Secondhand smoking In a research, passive smoking cause about 600,000 deaths per year all over the world. (ASH 1,2011)Thus, secondhand smoking is a big problem in UK. It is not only passive smoker easier than the smoker to get decease; it is also influence the later generations. According to an article Smoking in Public place (2003) shows that the link between passive smoking and both lung cancer and coronary heart disease, increasing the risk for each by around 25%. Secondhand smoking also does harm to babies and children which with an increased risk of respiratory infections, increased severity of asthma symptoms, more frequent occurrence of chronic coughs, phlegm and wheezing, and increased risk of cot death and glue ear.(ASH1, 2011) 2.3 The policy of UK Government ?2.31 The ban of advertising Advertisement has high influence in propagating. Thus, prohibiting the advertising of cigarette is a useful way to control the consumption of tobacco. The Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act which was enacted in 2003, prohibited virtually all forms of tobacco advertising and promotion, including print media and billboards, and sponsorship of sport was finally forbidden by July 2005. Moreover, as the ASH (2011) said that the UK Government estimated that banning cigarette advertising would lead to the decrease of consumption of around 3%. 2.32 The prohibiting in public place Smoking in public places and workplaces is now banned by law in UK. Except some places which include guest bedrooms in hotels and certain rooms in care homes, hospices and prisons. (ASH, 2011)Other public place and work place must no smoking such as restaurant. One typical example is Pizza Hut restaurants where smoking has no longer been permitted in all the 350 restaurants since early this year (Smoking in public place, 2003) 3. Discussions 3.1 Taxation Raising tobacco prices through increase taxation is a useful means. Smoking always bad for our health and a lot of young people also smoke. Controlling consumption of tobacco by taxation is probably the most effective (and certainly the most cost-effective) means. As we can see in Table2, the tax of cigarette was always increasing from 1990 to 2011.So when the price of tobacco increase, the demand of cigarette follows decrease. According to ASH 3the Treasury earned à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½10.5 billion in revenue from tobacco duties for the financial year 2009-2010 (including VAT) Thus, government can control the consumption of cigarette reducing so that decreases the death of people who died because of smoking. From a data The UK tax paid tobacco market is worth around à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½14 billion. The market is dominated by cigarettes, which represent 93.3% of the total duty paid market(ASH,2011), we can imagine how great extent the government increases the duty of cigarette. The taxation is about 76% of the price of a packet of cigarettes. The price of cigarettes has a major effect on cigarette consumption. Higher tobacco taxes reduce smoking and smoking related sickness people, so the number of smoker will cut down. Some people who have no high income will stop smoking, or never start because of the high cost. 3.2Advertising Advertisement is a very useful way to propagate. Thus, the government in UK is aware enough of this fact and declares martial law of advertising. AS the ASH said that the Government estimated that the ban on tobacco advertising in the UK would lead to a drop in consumption of around 3%, saving approximately 3000 lives in the long term.(ASH,2010)Most conspicuous forms of tobacco advertising and promotion in the UK were banned and all the package of cigarette must be normal not magnificent. All forms of tobacco advertising and promotion are banned in the UK with the exception of limited advertising at the point of sale. This will end when a ban on the display of tobacco products in large shops enters into force from 6 April 2012. Small shops will have until April 2015 to comply with the law.(ASH3, 2011)Moreover, the UK government introduced picture warnings on cigarette packs in October 2008. The picture of package will make smoker feel nausea because the picture is about what result after people smoking such as yellow tooth or black lung. This is also the efficacious means to reduce the consumption of tobacco and the number of smokers. 4. Conclusion 4.1 Summary All in all, smoking has more disadvantages than advantages even only harm and no good. As we all know, teenager smoking is also a problem which must be solved. It is easy to get disease and smokers often live in a short life. So governments try various devices to restrain the consumption of cigarette to resolve these problems. 4.2 Recommendation In order to efficaciously control the consumption of cigarette, government can set up more festival about banning smoking and propagate some preferential policy. For example, when people agree to give up smoking, the person will get corresponding subsidize. 5. Reference Anderton.A(2008) Economics(5th Edition) Harlow Person Education ASH1(2011)[online]Smoking statistics Available at http://www.ash.org.uk/information/facts-and-stats/fact-sheets [Accessed at 16/12/2011] ASH2 (2011)[online]Tobacco regulation Available at http://www.ash.org.uk/information/facts-and-stats/fact-sheets [Accessed at 16/12/2011] ASH3 (2011)[online]Tobacco economics Available at http://www.ash.org.uk/information/facts-and-stats/fact-sheets [Accessed at 16/12/2011] Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. [online]Volume 29, Issue 6. 2005; 1021-1034 Available at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763405000874[Accessed at 7/12/2011] Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (2003) Smoking in public place Available at http://www.parliament.uk/documents/post/pn206.pdf

Anti-Social Personality Disorder and Psychopathy Comparison

Anti-Social Personality Disorder and Psychopathy Comparison What is the distinction between Anti-Social Personality Disorder and Psychopathy? Is this distinction practically useful? The first step in answering such a question would be to define the terms, it is here that the first problem is encountered. On consulting Rycroft (1977, p.12) it appears that â€Å"behaviour disorder is a psychiatric diagnostic term embracing psychopathy† This definition paraphrases that contained in the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders referred to by Hare(1993 p.24). In addition to being enduring patterns of markedly deviant behaviour, the characteristics are first diagnosed as a disorder in adolescence or early adulthood. The American definition judges anti social behaviour disorder by what is done. A vastly different definition can be found in Home Office Research Document 225 (Moran Hagell 2001), where, what is put forward, is acceptable behaviour, once again, specifically in adolescents. Thus the Home Office/NHS definition of anti social behaviour is one in which adolescents fail to meet the set of criteria that would identify them as functioning normally. They are judged by what they fail to do. In this document Moran and Hagell do go on to define anti-social personality disorder as an extreme form of anti-social behaviour. They also make a very important distinction, â€Å"anti-social behaviour is what people do whilst anti-social personality disorder is what people have. Psychopathy is a psychiatric and medico legal term for what used to be called moral  imbecility. Despite the fact that Cleckley (1952) suggests that the term psychopathic personality was replaced by personality disorder, it was still in use by the medico-legal authorities in England and Wales as evidenced by its use in the Mental Health Act 1959 where it was defined as: â€Å"a persistent disorder or disability of mind (whether or not including sub normality of  intelligence) which results in abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct  on the part of the patient, and requires or is susceptible to medical treatment† In common with anti-social personality disorder, psychopathy is something that a person has rather than does. This distinction from other deviant or socially unacceptable behaviour allows for the treatment of offenders in special hospitals. If these definitions are not sufficient to confuse, in the United States of America the terms psychopath and socio path are used interchangeably. Hare (1993 pp 23-24) condemns this practice and contrary to a large body of medical opinion posits that the terms anti-social personality disorder and psychopathy are not interchangeable either. Hare (1993 p.22) suggests that the confusion and uncertainty surrounding the term psychopathy for which he claims a literal meaning of â€Å"mental illness† is largely due to inappropriate and irresponsible use of the term by the media. According to Hare,(1993 pp34-70) the difference between anti-social personality disorder and psychopathy is that the former refers primarily to a cluster of criminal and antisocial behaviours whilst the latter is a syndrome defined by a cluster of both personality traits and socially deviant behaviours. He has produced a list of key symptoms of psychopathy. Hare shows that the criteria for diagnosis of psychopathy is, or should be, different, and following on from this, it can be seen that whilst most criminals are not psychopaths many criminals will have some degree of anti-social personality disorder. If the distinction between psychopathy and anti social personality disorder was universally agreed and referred to in the treatment of offenders then it might have a practical usefulness. Alas this is not the case, even the criteria for determining psychopathy cannot be agreed. In 1995 Prins as quoted by Bartlett and Sandland (2003 p311) added further indicators to the criteria for diagnosis. Does this mean that some offenders have previously been misdiagnosed? The distinction that Hare continues to make between psychopathy and anti-social behaviour is not universally accepted. In England, the medical profession are slowly beginning to contest the insistence of separating psychopathy from anti-social personality disorders. Bartlett and Sandland (2000 pp48-51) point to the fact that Section 1(2) of the Mental Health Act 1983 defines the terms used in the Act and whilst they accept the definition of other terms in the sub section they strongly contest the validity of the definition of psychopathic disorder. They base their argument on the fact that the criteria for definition are not distinct from the results of that behaviour. They argue that: â€Å"abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct does not merely characterise the  malady; they are indistinguishable from it, at least in current medical understanding†. They suggest that the medical profession consider the term psychopathy outdated and prefer instead to speak of anti-social or dis-social personality disorder. It is not only within England and Wales that there is disagreement, the mental health legislation in Scotland and Northern Ireland does not distinguish between psychopathy and anti-social behaviour disorder. Even amongst the legal and medical establishments of Great Britain and Northern Ireland there is no agreement. Gough (1968) suggests that the concept of psychopathy can be traced to the work of J. C. Pritchard who in 1885 classified psychiatric disorders into two broad categories, moral and intellectual sanity. Pritchard referred to aberrations of the conative and emotional areas of the brain. That Pritchards thinking affected other health professionals can be inferred from the work of Grob (1994 pp149-150) in which he recounts the history of Boston Psychopathic Hospital which opened in 1912. Amongst the variety of deviant types who were treated there, were prostitutes and juvenile delinquents. By current definitions these types indulge in anti-social behaviour but without further in-depth diagnosis neither would be classed as psychopathic. Perhaps this type of thinking was influenced by Ceasare Lombroso (1876) who claimed that the heavy punishments of his day could not be justified by the effect they might have, because the behaviour of those who committed crime could not be changed. They were born criminals. In an age of more enlightened approach towards criminality Fennell and Yeates (1999) propose that there is undoubtedly a moral hierarchy of mental disorder. They suggest that in crude terms the mentally ill are divided into afflicted or deserving mad whilst people with anti social personality disorder; and the definition which includes psychopathy is assumed here; are seen as the bad mad or undeserving mad. Unfortunately it seems that this classification of the mentally ill, fuelled by the media has developed a strong and negative influence on popular perceptions of those mental disorders which are identified by anti-social behaviour. The theory of criminal behaviour proposed by Eysenck in 1964 muddies the water even further Peck and Whitlow(1979) examine his claims that extroverts are more likely to show more criminal behaviour. Although a later study by Cochrane in 1974 discredited this conclusion it does point to an over emphasis on which type of people are prone to anti-social behaviour rather than why anti-social behaviour occurs. At least Hare (1993) makes an attempt to explain why psychopathy occurs in certain individuals, he suggests that something is missing and that this something is conscience. A dictionary definition of conscience would include, moral sense, the sense of right and wrong. It is this sense which is missing in the psychopath. In psychology the notion of conscience is closely related to the psychoanalytic theories of Freud. Wrightsman (1997) explains how these theories have contributed to social psychology and particularly the understanding of the socialisation of the individual. He explains that the contents of the superego are distilled from the influences of parents, teachers and other persons and eventually become internalised as conscience. Braithwaite (2003 p394-395) in his work on re-integrative shaming suggests that conscience is what prevents most people from committing crime rather than the deterrence of punishment. He suggests that societies which replace much of punishment, as a means of social control, with shaming and appeals to the better natures of people, have less crime. The argument continues that punishment should be reserved for the psychopaths because they are beyond shaming. The problem arises once again that punishment will not deter further offending. The psychopath will play the game whilst confined but on release, because of his inability to learn from experience, will continue to offend. Braithwaites suggestion indicates that our prisons should be full of psychopaths which is clearly not the case. If this argument was put forward in respect of people suffering from anti-social personality disorder it would be more credible. The notion of born criminal continues and to compound the problem further Graft (1961) suggested that there is probably more than one type of psychopath, he included, brain damaged, affectionless, emotionally unstable and impulsive. To this list can be added the sexual psychopath (Dobson 1981). Without actually using this phrase Marshall and Barbaree (1990) as cited by Ward, Polaschek and Beech ( 2006 pp33-45) suggest similarities between psychopaths and sexual offenders, notably that both groups are likely to have experienced physical and sexual abuse as children. Although there may be some similarities between types, not all sexual offenders are psychopaths, nor are all psychopaths sexual offenders. Such indiscriminate use of the term psychopath is not helpful and probably only serves to fuel the belief that nothing can be done to alleviate the condition. As late as 1976 Cleckley, whose work is discussed by Hare(1993 pp27-28) suggested that since psychopaths cannot benefit from exp erience there is little that can be done for them. Perhaps this pessimistic view stems from the belief that the onset of anti social personality disorder occurs in adolescence or early adulthood. Hare (1999) cites the work of sociologist William McCord in which it was concluded that although attempts to deflect a person from psychopathic patterns in early life had not been successful, there was hope for those programmes in which an individuals social and physical environment was completely changed. McCord appears to have recognised that sufferers from anti-social behaviour disorder are not born bad but might be made bad as a result of early life experiences. This suggestion appears to be born out by the work of Rutter et al (2007) with Romanian adoptees who had suffered trauma as a result of institutional deprivation. Rutter and his colleagues have shown that the early influences in life, particularly the influence or lack of parental care, can have profound effects on the development of the child. It is not suggested that early separation from the mother automatically causes anti-social behaviour disorder, but Rutter and his colleagues have shown that adverse early life experiences do cause trauma and disruption of emotional and psychological development, what has been described as the primal wound. What is important about studies of adopted institutionalised children is that whilst their behaviour is what they do, it can be linked to the trauma they have suffered and to the resultant emotional and psychological problems that they have. Optimistically Rutter believes that even when emotional and socialising deprivation has occurred, it can be addressed, and the sooner it is addressed, the greater the chances of the abandoned child leading a relatively normal life. He found that those children who had been institutionalised for less than six months fared better than those who had been institutionalised for a longer period. Rutter and his colleagues discovered that children in their sample who had suffered institutional deprivation in Romania had greater problems than those from Romania who had not been in an institution, or children who had been adopted from within the U.K. It was noted that IQ and inattention had a negative effect on scholastic attainment, the children exhibited autistic like patterns, possibly a response to profound lack of interpersonal interactions and conversations. These children also suffered dis-inhibited attachment, inattention/over-activity problems and emotional and conduct disturbances. The findings concerning scholastic attainment are borne out by research conducted by Beckett et al (2007). When considering the work of Goldfarb (1943) as cited by Woods (2004) the foregoing should not be surprising, his research showed that institutionalised children show higher levels of aggressive behaviour and score lower in IQ and sociability tests than non institutionalised children but these problems were more severe for those children who remained in the orphanage for longer. A few years later Bowlbys (1951) maternal deprivation hypothesis suggested that a failed or damaged attachment was likely to cause long term difficulties for a child. Despite the fact that Bowlbys research was criticised as being flawed, Woods (2004) reveals that his emphasis on bonding and attachment has been held to be correct by Michael Rutter(1982) If the foregoing is examined in the light of the NHS/Health Advisory Service indicators of 1995, that is; a capacity to enter into and sustain mutually satisfying personal relationships, continuing progression of psychological development, an ability to play and learn so that attainments are appropriate for age and intellectual level, a developing moral sense of right and wrong, and a degree of psychological distress and maladaptive behaviour being within the normal limits for the childs age and context, it could be argued that unless these problems are resolved such children might be in danger of exhibiting anti-social behaviour and/or developing anti-social personality disorder. This hypothesis is stated to make the point that a lack of clear definition, and aetiology in the study and management of anti-social behaviour disorder and psychopathy, if indeed the two are separate, only serves to encourage much more speculative explanations of behaviour. There is perhaps a belief that it is unreasonable to label a child as a psychopath and if this is one of the reasons that the British medical establishment prefer the designation anti-social personality disorder then this is beneficial, particularly if it prompts recognition that symptoms of the disorder are recognisable at a very early age. Certainly the research of Goldfarb, Bowlby, Rutter and others has  shown that causes for anti-social behaviour in children can be identified and responded to, the earlier the response the greater the chance of effecting fundamental change. Experimental data concerning the effects on animals of enriched and impoverished environments is readily available and supports the conclusions based on observations of adopted children. Boddy (1981pp205-208 ) describes experiments carried out by Bennet et al in 1964 in which it was found that rats from age twenty five days to eighty days reared in an enriched environment had cerebral cortices which were thicker and heavier than rats of the same age reared in impoverished environments. This study was complemented by work conducted by Krech et al in 1962. This study found that differences in learning ability correlated with structural and biochemical differences induced in the cerebral cortex as a result of exposure to different environments. Obviously similar experimentation on the human brain is unacceptable and the only evidence available is from the post mortem examination of human brains. Boddy points to the study of the brain of a blind deaf mute carried out by Donaldson (1980) which was found to have atrophied visual and auditory areas. Sight and sound were missing as a result of defects in the corresponding areas of the brain. If, as the studies with institutionalised children appear to show early damage due to a deprived environment may be repairable, why does there appear to be permanence of psychopathy or anti-social behaviour disorder in adults? The psychopathic personality scores high as an extrovert and Boddy (1981 p253) quotes Grays work of 1972 in pointing out that the extrovert is not readily conditionable because the septo-hippocampal system which inhibits responses that have been punished or have failed to elicit reward is relatively insensitive. There is more than a suggestion here that conscience, guilt and remorse are missing in the psychopathic personality because of a defect in the septo-hippocampal system. Because of their psychological profile psychopaths and people suffering from anti-social behaviour disorder are unlikely to seek out or even believe that they need therapy. If this class of person is forced into undergoing therapy, for example by the justice system, they are unlikely to take an active part in their treatment. It could be argued that their belief systems are so entrenched that they cannot be changed. Aitkenhead and Slack (1985 p323) suggest that we acquire a large body of knowledge over a lifetime and that this knowledge is incorporated into our belief systems which then affects our interactions with society. It maybe that certain information has to be acquired at specific times in life. Body (1981 p208) points to the work of the ethologist Nash in 1970 which has wide support amongst psychologists. Nash suggested that the external stimuli for many crucial events in development must occur within critical periods. If this is true then it would explain why adults with psychopathic personality disorder or anti-social personality disorder do not, indeed cannot respond to therapy. If the window of opportunity for essential socialising influences can be identified then steps can be taken to ensure the necessary conditions for socialisation are present. In the absence of this information an assumption that these conditions should be available from birth or as soon as possible afterwards may eliminate or reduce the instances of psychopathy and anti-social behaviour disorder. There is no doubt that anti-social behaviour disorder and psychopathic personality disorder cause problems for society and for the individuals concerned. Even here there is no clear understanding of the immensity of the problem. Rutter, Gillo and Hagell (1998) suggest that obtaining accurate data on which to assess the state of the problem that anti -social behaviour poses is also problematical. There is no single source of data concerning anti-social behaviour, therefore data has to be drawn from official statistics, criminal records, victim surveys and self report data which means that research is based on estimates rather than facts. What is the distinction between Anti-Social Personality Disorder and Psychopathy? Is this distinction practically useful? It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine if there is any real distinction between these two afflictions or if there is only one malady with two or more names. Hare(1993 pp34-70) does make a distinction between anti-social personality disorder and psychopathy in that one refers primarily to a cluster of criminal and antisocial behaviours whilst the other is a syndrome defined by a cluster of both personality traits and socially deviant behaviours. Hares view seems to be in the minority. The continued distinction appears to have no practical use at all. Scotland and N.Ireland seem to manage quite well without making a legal distinction. A universal adoption of the term anti-social behaviour disorder or better still, psychopathy in its original meaning of â€Å"mental illness† might have more practical use if it removed the sad/bad madness dichotomy. M ore accurate collection of data would obviously help to obtain a clearer understanding of the extent of the problem. The practice of waiting until adolescence or early adulthood before diagnosis,when previous research indicates that at this point nothing can be done to change behaviour, seems to be insane. In the light of the work conducted by Nash, Goldfarb, Bowlby, Rutter and others, the sane, the moral, thing to do would be to diagnose as early as possible after birth and then put measures in place to ensure that all developmental milestones are achieved. What the affliction is called is not nearly as important as its treatment. References Bartlett P. Sandford R. (2003) Mental Health Law, Policy Practice. (2nd Ed). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Beckett C. Maughan B. Rutter M. Castle J. Colvert E. Groothues C. Hawkins A. Kreppner J. OConnor T.G. Stevens S. Sonuga-Barke E.J. (2007). Scholastic Attainment Following Severe Early Institutionalised Deprivation: A study of Children Adopted from Romania. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 1063-1073 Retrieved 1 November 2008 from e-prints Soton, University of Southampton. Boddy J. (1981) Brain Systems and Psychological Concepts. Chichester: John Wiley Sons Ltd. Braithwaite J. (1996) Re-integrative Shaming. In McLaughlin E. Muncie J. Hughes G. (Ed) Criminological Perspectives 293-299. London: Sage. Dobson A.P. (1981) Cases and Statutes on Criminal Law (2nd Ed). London: Sweet and Maxwell. Gabor T (1986) The Prediction of Criminal Behaviour. Toronto: Toronto University Press. Gough H.G. (1968) A Sociological Theory of Psychopathy in Spitzer S.P. Dervain. N.K. (Ed). The Mental Patient:Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: McGraw Hill (1968) 60-67. Grob M. (1994) The Mad Among Us. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press. Hare R.D. (1999) Without Conscience.The Disturbing World of the Psychopath Among Us. New York: Guildford Press. Moran P. Hagell A (2001) . Intervening to Prevent Anti-Social Personality Disorder. Home Office Research Study 255. London. Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate Retrieved Home Office Data Base October 31, 2008 from www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/hors225.pdf Peck D. Whitlow D.(1975) Approaches to Personality Theory. London: Methuen. Rycroft C. (1977) A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Rutter M. Beckett C. Castle J. Colvert E. Kreppner J. Mehta M. (2007) Effects of Profound Early Institutional Deprivation: An Overview of Findings from a U.K. Longitudinal Study of Romanian Adoptees. European Jouurnal of Developmental Psychology 4(3) 332-350 Rutter M. Gillo H. Hagell A. (1998) Antisocial Behaviour by Young People. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ward T. Polaschek D.L.L. Beech A.R. (2006) Theories of Sexual Offending. Chichester: John Wiley Sons. Wrightsman L.S. (1972) Social Psychology (2nd Ed). Monterey Cal: Brookes Cole Publishing.

Deinstitutionalization Of Mental Hospitals In 1970 Criminology Essay

Deinstitutionalization Of Mental Hospitals In 1970 Criminology Essay Introduction Deinstitutionalization of mental hospitals came into play in 1970 in the United States; the program aimed at treating mentally retarded patients within the community itself rather than maintaining and treating them at mental hospitals. During these days, state mental hospitals were regarded as institutions that deprived the mentally ill patients their freedom to associate with family and community members within the society. For instance, the United States Congress approved the Community Mental Health Centers Act that facilitated deinstitutionalization, thus getting out the mentally ill persons from confinements of the custodial institutions into deliberate medication at the community mental health institutions. Despite the perceived good of deinstitutionalization by the policy makers in the United States and the world over, the move has brought about more sophisticated problems. In essence the whole program has failed to achieve its objectives and has led to mentally ill individual suffering in the boulevards and dungeons, as well as in the shelter homes, and beggars homes, (Sheth 12). To be true enough, the policy of deinstitutionalization has failed completely. New Freedom Commission on Mental Health analyzed the American public mental health and confirmed that it is in a terrible state. This paper is aimed at discussing the impacts of deinstitutionalization for the last 35 years on criminal justice, advantages and disadvantages of deinstitutionalization and how mental health issues should be addressed in correctional systems. Discussion As at the present, it is estimated that more than 4.5 million Americans are suffering from severe mental illnesses. The total number of persons that do not receive medication out of the 4.5 millions is approximately 40%. This has increased homelessness, violence, and incarceration. Since the onset of deinstitutionalization policy, almost one third of homeless persons in the US suffer from severe mental retardation. In addition in Oklahoma, researchers have established that there is a correlation existing between the increasing number of suicidal and the decreasing state of mental health centers. Ted Strickland, a US congressman testified that, thousands of mentally ill persons are being taken out of hospitals and dumped in communities where there are no adequate mental health services that cannot receive and take care of them. The idea of deinstitutionalization has culminated into trans-institutionalization, whereby large numbers of mentally ill individuals find themselves in prisons, jails, and homeless shelters, (Sheth 15). For instance, the recent studies have shown that more than 40% of Beggars Home inmates are mentally ill. The policy of deinstitutionalization is a recipe of the evil that is done to the mentally ill persons in the US. The defenseless and helpless mentally ill people roam and beg on streets, roadside, footpaths, and are also seen starving in streets, eating from garbage bins and take refuge in shelter homes. In addition the society jeers at them, verbally, physically and sexually abuse them. Policy makers who came up with this particular policy, wanted to clean and beautiful mental hospitals without taking into consideration that the streets and other social places will be messed up. Recent studies have established that there are more mentally sick people in prisons and jails compared to those ones that are hospitalized. Around 9,000 people released from New York jails and prisons on annual basis have psychiatric disabilities without housing or support services. It has also been found out that 40 to 50% of community mental health system clients have a history of criminal arrest. Furthermore there is a direct link between closure of mental hospitals and mushrooming of new prisons and jails. With regard to the US department of Justice, when 40 mental hospitals were closed in the past ten years, 400 new prisons were opened up. The law enforcement department is now tasked with confronting and solving the communitys problems resulting from deinstitutionalization. For instance, studies show that, more than 70% of mentally ill individual should be sent to jail for their own safety and well-being. Recent research depict that rates of arrest of mentally ill persons is higher compared to that of normal people, (Sheth 17). This is because; such individuals are arrested on charges like disturbing peace and criminal trespass. In the first place, incarceration was thought to be the best remedy with regard to vast problems faced on the streets; the reality is that arresting a chronically mentally ill person and taking him or her into custody and forcefully imposing criminal justice, denies justice to all concerned. Of all the mentally ill persons arrested only 12% are arrested for charges that significantly warrant for incarceration. Moreover, 54% of mentally ill arrestees are always found to be incompetent and hence can not stand trials. Arresting mentally ill persons in essence does not solve the problem or enforce criminal justice but rather intensifies management and financial problems for detention facilities. These kinds of arrests only fill criminal court calendar rather than solving the problem. The moment of arresting mentally ill individuals, the criminal justice enforcement funds are shifted to mental health area to cater for the arrestee, with law and justice enforcement agencies instead of state hospitals playing their fundamental duty of housing and treating the mentally ill. In fact at the detention levels surveys have found out that between 50% and 60% of the inmate population are mentally ill with successful suicide rate 75% higher that of the general population. Advantages of Deinstitutionalization Treatment of outpatient clinics is less expensive and effective as compared to treatment in highly sophisticated mental hospitals that require boarding fees in addition to medical fees. Consequently, the patients will have freedom of community based treatment as compared to in-patient hospitals. Disadvantages of deinstitutionalization Deinstitutionalization has broadly contributed to homelessness, as people released from in-patient facilities have no place to go. Furthermore, it has also led to a revolving door situation, where chronically mentally ill persons are periodically hospitalized, released and eventually hospitalized. How mental health issues should be addressed in correctional systems With regard to criminal justice to mentally ill individuals, a proactive and conscious approach is a basic requirement and several elements are significant in implementing such an approach. Studies have shown and suggested that law enforcement officers have higher chances of arresting a mentally ill person than it is to a normal person. In relation to this, officers in criminal justice department should undergo or receive extensive training with regard to handling cases of such kind. The training should not only advocate for identifying mental illness symptoms but also provide communication skills and knowledge that the officer can use to communicate with and handle the psychiatric patient. The training should also be designed in a manner that does not compromise the humane treatment or concern for the officers safety. Criminal justice department especially the law enforcement agencies should collaborate and negotiate with medical institutions to come up with policies and mental illness cases procedures, implementing no-decline agreements that would importantly increase the choices of the criminal justice system. For better service delivery by law enforcement officers, the psychiatric com munity should wholly be involved by putting aside their mutual stereotypes and antagonism. It is also necessary for the law enforcement officer to have adequate information on statutory guidelines in relation to law enforcement that initiates involuntary psychiatric commitment. They should also understand that mental illness symptoms should not be taken or considered criminal behavior to aid the arresting if the same behavior will be relied upon for civil petition for automatic hospitalization. The expertise in this section requires the law enforcement officer to undergo training that will eventually equip him with the appropriate procedures that meet the statutory designed standards. The law enforcement bodies can also commence innovative pre arrest diversion systems. For instance, the law enforcing officer in the field, who comes in contact with psychiatric offender, should have more options, instead of making the arrest he can leave the crime scene other than providing the solution to the basic issues. The pre-arrest diversion program, which consists of mobile crisis unit involving mental health practitioners in corporation with law enforcement officers, would give the officer freedom of not making custody related decisions till new options with regard to the situation are reviewed, (Sheth 18). For this matter the non-violent offenders shall be handed over to crisis teams thus allowing officer to attend to other criminal related issues. Conclusion In the last two to three decades there has been a rapid rise in numbers of the mentally ill persons released into the society. Deinstitutionalization has integrated itself into trans-institutionalization whereby a massive number of psychiatric patients have been transferred of shifted from state owned hospitals to streets, beggars homes, prisons and jails. The civil libertarians have eventually changed into criminal justice system. Most, law enforcement officers consider mental illness symptoms to be elements of crime. For this situation to change, law enforcement agencies should shun from being inundated by such social problems, in addition a proactive response linking the societys resources to the real and actual area of need is essential. Work Cited Sheth, Hitesh. Deinstitutionalization or Disowning Responsibility. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation. 13.2 (2009): 11-20.

Death in Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening Essays -- Stopping Woods

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening   - A Stop for Death  Ã‚   Everyone feels burdened by life at some point. Everyone wishes they could just close their eyes and make all the problems and struggles of life disappear. Some see death as a release from the chains and ropes with which the trials and tribulations of life bind the human race. Death is a powerful theme in literature, symbolized in a plethora of ways. In "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Eve" Robert Frost uses subtle imagery, symbolism, rhythm and rhyme to invoke the yearning for death that the weary traveler of life feels.    When the speaker in "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Eve" pauses for a moment's rest, he does not do so on a simple evening, but on the "darkest evening of the year," the winter solstice (474). The winter solstice is the day marking the beginning of winter, when the sun is the sky for the shortest time, and the night is longest. Night, with its darkness and shadows, is a classic symbol of death. On the winter solstice, Death can be considered his strongest, for his time, the night, is the longest i...

Collective Memory :: essays research papers

Anthony D. Smith who wrote â€Å"National Identity and Myths of Ethnic Descent† discussed how myths are formed and how they can lead to the ethnic regeneration within a group of people. He associated his ideas on ethnic regeneration with the countries of Turkey, Greece, England, France, and Israel. His ideas clearly outlined the steps that are taken to regenerate when people are influence by myths created sometimes thousands of years ago in such cases as seen by Jews. There were eight steps which all of these nation-states were said to have followed, in order to be where they are today. Of these eight steps I do not agree with the one that says, â€Å"they designate a space and time for their action.† I do not feel that a specific time is designated. Instead I feel that the time is determined at a moment’s notice. This can be seen presently when referring to the future state of Palestine. The date for this states declaration of existence has changed numerous time s during the past few years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Yael Zerubavel writes about Collective remembering and Zionist reconstruction of the past. I do not agree with the historian that Zerubavel talks about in his writings. I feel that Halbwach’s view of history expressed as â€Å"collective memory†. Collective memory is what gives a society is goals that they must seek in the future. It also creates a bond between the people of that society. As a result it leads to these people wanting to settle together in a nation-state. The Zionist movement is an example of something caused by collective memory. Through generations the Diaspora and other events in the lives of Jews have been passed on, which eventually led Jews to create a homeland in 1948.

Death Penalty Essay -- essays research papers

Death Penalty: Barbaric or Justice?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Julian Ptachin was only 14 years old in October 1997 when a drunk driver smashed into his parents van. His Dad, a physician, had to hold Julian while he died on the side of the road. The drunk driver was a three-timed convicted, repeat offender. He was convicted of second-degree murder and was ordered to serve eight years in jail. Doesn’t something seem wrong with this picture? Repeat crime convicts are running down the streets rapid: endangering our children, our loved ones, and even us.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What can us, as citizens, do to stop these heinous crimes? The Death Penalty. The Death Penalty has been around for several hundred years. One of the first people to first use the death penalty was the Babylonians who would use the system of â€Å"an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.†(Matthew 5:38, KJV) Throughout this reign the Babylonians were very successful and were considered very strong when it came to war tactics. In ancient times there was no repeat offenders, no repeated crimes, and everybody knew what they had to do to stay alive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Today repeat offenders are walking our streets that we walk on everyday. Many newspapers put out names of sexual offenders who are let out on bail, but yet receive lots of negative feedback for the use of privacy. The American people should have a right to know who the sex offenders are and where i...

Food Production

This essay will explain about farming today, and how it affects our environment, also ways in which we can help to protect our environment, our health and animal welfare. Farming is the production of food and other materials by raising plants and animals. Many people buy their food in supermarkets close to their homes, but the food is imported from many different countries, and many products are farmed in a number of different ways. The way food is farmed affects the environment. It also affects people's health and the treatment of animals. Some farming methods are more harmful than others. Over 11,000 years ago, people got all their food by gathering wild plants, hunting and also from fishing. They travelled around constantly in search for food. But then people learned how to grow plants from seeds. They learned how to raise animals, and then began to settle in one place. Now they could wait for their plants and crops to grow, and begin to harvest them when they were ripe. Then about 250 years ago farmers in much wealthier countries started using machines. Machinery did most of the work for people, so people could make food for many more people and sell it to their community. Scientists then developed chemicals to produce more food, and developed new plants and different breeds of animals. Many more farmers now use more chemicals such as fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides to grow more crops. Fertilisers make the soil more fertile. Pesticides kill insects that harm crops and herbicides kill weeds among the crops. Today in wealthy countries such as Britain and the USA people live in cities rely on fewer farmers in the countryside to grow their food. But many people are worried about how their food is produced, chemicals are sprayed onto the crops and they can stay on the food. They can also run into rivers and the water underground. New kinds of plants and new breads of animals may upset the natural environment. Valuable soil is also being lost or damaged. There is a lot of reduction in land and one of the causes for this is farming Farming methods, including overgrazing, incorrect farming methods and the overstocking of land, remove essential nutrients from the soil. This results in the denudation of the land. As no vegetation is available to retain the soil, it is washed away. Soil erosion further lessens the amount of land available for natural plants and animals. As the number of people grows daily, more food is needed and more land is being utilised for farming, decreasing the amount of land used by animals and plants, especially in the case of rainforests in tropical countries. As the rainforest are destroyed to make way for more farming land. Nature, insect and vegetation. In other countries hedge rows and trees are lost also killing that which resides there. Modern farming results include: 1) The hybridisation of plant species 2) improvements from animal breeding 3) the use of fertilisers and insecticides There are two types of insecticide found: 1) Organic: from plants and animals, e.g. manure and compost 2) inorganic: from non-living materials, e.g. rocks, minerals (these can disrupt ecosystems) When inorganic fertilisers are dissolved in rainwater, they run off into water sources. This is called Eutrophication. Eutrophication is the over growth of algae in water ecosystems where nutrients are usually limiting. Many fresh water systems are ‘oligotrophic', meaning that the growth of primary producers (algae) is limited not by dissolved gas or light, but by nutrients such as nitrates and minerals. The organisms in these environments have evolved to be optimally suited to these conditions, and everything works fairly well. But when someone builds something next to a lake (e.g. golf course), and the fertilizer being used on the grass runs off into the lake, the algae grows too fast for the rest of the ecosystem to keep up, and overgrows the lake, killing everything in it. That's one example, there are many other the solutions generally involve not washing lots of nutrients into lakes and streams (or the ocean, which, although generally full of nutrients, can also be locally overwhelmed with runoff, especially in coral reef environments). Farmers use pesticides and insecticides to kill organisms that damage their crops. The following methods are used: 1) Chemical: a poison is introduced, e.g. herbicides and DDT 2) biological: a natural predator is introduced, e.g. snakes to kill rats 3) mechanical: people and machines are used, e.g. rat traps Side effects of these methods can include: 1) The death of animals that are not pests 2) DDT entering and moving up the food chain DDT is an effective but dangerous pesticide. Below is a diagram to show how DDT is moved up the food chain. Farming produces much pollution, mainly water pollution through chemicals, and air pollution through machinery used in the farming process, the consequences of fumes being given off lead to, the green house effect which leads to global warming. Detrimental effects on human health and vegetation. This also causes acid rain. Water pollution was mentioned earlier. And how the chemicals being used travel through the lakes and rivers. This disrupts our ecosystems. So now you basically know what effects food production has on our environment, so how can we prevent this from happening? Well for a start we could all begin to eat more organic foods. Organic agriculture bars the use of synthetic pesticides and artificial fertilizers, and instead relies on ecological interactions to raise yields, reduce pests and build soil fertility. Diverse planting patterns, frequent rotations and attraction of beneficial insects, for instance, would all be organic means of pest control. Organic meat and dairy farming is the raising of animals without hormones, antibiotics or other artificial chemicals; it also includes using organic feed and allowing animals sufficient range of movement and sunlight. Genetic engineering of plants and animals is not considered organic. Organic farming is definitely a way forward. Lets hope in the future more people see it this way.